Healthy Body Lead to a Happy Lifestyle

People nowthere think that being rich and having a lot of money is the happiest thing in life. But, what is the use of money without a healthy body? Do you mind to buy the most delicious food but you cant eat it? or a pair of nice shoes but then you cant even wear it for a travel?. What is it feel when you can have your own big house and you can only sit there, in a room, worrying all about the disease that you get?. You don’t jump out of bed in the morning excited to be starting another day of your fabulous life.Instead, you drag yourself, grumbling, wondering what you are going to wear to cover your latest growing bulge. Somehow, it looks stressful, isn’t it? Can you see that world is moving at a faster rate, even more than the speed of light. Getting things done in a faster pace and presenting it to the world before anyone else, has become the priority for humans these days. In the quest of making money and fame I guess many of you are ignoring the most precious weal th of your life.Yes, it is HEALTH. John F. Kennedy once said: â€Å"Physical fitness is not only one of the most important keys to a healthy body, it is the basis of dynamic and creative intellectual activity. † Too often we take our health for granted and realize its importance only when we fall ill badly. Yet, it does not take a lot to be happy, eoungh that you have a healthy body and a healthy mind. If not feeling physically great at least having a healthy body is a prerequisite for a happy life.

A Whistle-Blower for All Seasons

Whistle-blowing has had a long and venerable tradition in the history of politics. From Cicero and his Catiline Orations to Cynthia Cooper at WorldCom, whistle-blowers have existed for as long as there was political intrigue and power on the line.For this essay, however, the focus will be on one particular famous historical whistle-blower; Sir Thomas More, a former chancellor to Henry VIII of England. This essay will attempt two things; to compare Sir Thomas More to recent famous whistle-blowers and to determine what makes an effective whistle-blower.By way of background, in 1534 King Henry VIII of England sought an annulment from his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, in order to marry Anne Boleyn. (Brigden) More resigned from the Chancellorship when the English Parliament enacted several acts designed to wrest authority over the English Church from Rome when the King’s annulment was refused by the Pope. (Williams) He was eventually executed for his refusal to cooperate.Sir Tho mas More, as portrayed in Robert Bolt’s play called A Man For All Seasons, is the penultimate man of conscience. In one of the more famous lines from the play, Sir Thomas answers Norfolk’s pleas for fellowship on the matter of the Act of Succession by replying, â€Å"And when we stand before God, and you are sent to Paradise for doing according to your conscience, and I am damned for not doing according to mine, will you come with me for fellowship?† (Bolt)This shows the esteem with which Sir Thomas More held the human conscience, and deemed that a man ought to live and die by the dictates of that conscience.This particular trait is something he shares with modern-day whistle-blowers like Linda Lewis of the Food Safety and Inspection Service of the US Department of Agriculture, who blew the whistle on her agency’s lack of preparedness in the event of a terrorist attack. She claimed that both More and Martin Luther were her inspirations when she made the d ecision to blow the whistle, quoting Martin Luther’s â€Å"Peace if possible, but truth at any rate†. (Andersen)Sir Thomas More also had the advantage of a strong faith, which lent him transcendent moral ideals. He was â€Å"the King’s good servant, but God’s first†, whose answer to Norfolk’s questioning of the concept of Apostolic Succession[1] was, â€Å"But what matters to me is not whether it's true or not but that I believe it to be true†. (Bolt) His faith was tied to his notions of conscience, and a violation of a transcendent moral principle was more intolerable than political and personal upheaval.   Whistle-blowing can be a very isolating act.A whistle-blower often breaches expectations of loyalty from the group he or she belongs to. (Bok) This leads to retaliation from the group the whistle-blower once expected to be safe in. However, a transcendent belief, be it in the form of ethics, religious beliefs, community allegian ces, ontological security, economic security or political ideology, helps whistle-blowers identify with a higher authority and gives them the fortitude to go through with the act and withstand the strong pressure to conform. (Jasper)More shares this trait with FBI whistle-blower Fred Whitehurst, who claimed that his religious faith sustained him in his decision to against his superiors in a matter of evidence tampering. (Andersen)[1] Apostolic Succession is the doctrine that all bishops of the Church are successors of the Apostles, with the Pope succeeding St. Peter.

Synthesis of Acetanilide

Synthesis of Acetanilide By: Rick Whitely April 9, 2013 Organic Chemistry Lab 1; Professor J. Hutchison Recrystallization is a common method of purifying organic substances through the differences in solubility at different temperature. In this experiment, acetanilide was produced by acetylation of aniline with acetic anhydride. The crude acetanilide was dissolved in a solvent in a heated water bath. The solution was cooled slowly in an ice bath as crystals form out.As the compound crystallizes from the solution, the limiting reagent Aniline and the percent yield of 96% was obtained. Introduction: This experiment involves four functional groups common in organic chemistry. The substrate (reactants) which are Aniline and Acetic anhydride are both liquids and one of the products is solid (Acetanilide). The reaction of aniline with acetic anhydride is a transformation in which products acetanilide and acetic acid are obtained. A solid product (Acetanilide) is obtained so that it may be recrystallized and a melting point determined.The Reaction: Aniline (C6H5NH2) + acetic anhydride (C4H6O3) Acetanilide (C8H9NO) + acetic acid (C2H4O2) Results and Discussion: Amines can be treated (Acylated, adding a Carbonyl and losing a proton) using Acetic Anhydride as a source of an â€Å"Acyl† group to form an Amide. The Synthesis of Acetanilide (an Amide) through a Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution (addition / elimination) reaction between Aniline (an Amine) is acting as the Nucleophile and an Acyl group from Acetic Anhydride acting as the Electrophile.The Mechanism: The desired product is isolated from its impurities by differences in solubility. Soluble impurities remain in the cold solvent after recrystallization. The desired product should be as soluble as possible in hot solvent and as insoluble as possible in cold solvent. The selection of solvent is therefore critical to the successful recrystallization which in this experiment, water was used as the solvent because of its solubility. The calculated percent yield was 96%. Procedures: Acetic anhydride (1mL, 10. 8) was added in several small portions along with 6 mL of deionized water to (0. 1 g, 1. 08 mmol) of aniline. The immediate formation of a solid precipitate was observed. After adding 20mL of deionized water to the mixture, it was then heated until all of the material was dissolved. A crystalline solid was obtained while cooling to room temperature, then filtered and washed with 2mL of chilled water. The material was allowed to dry for approximately 15 minutes and (0. 9795 g, 96%) of Acetanilide was recovered. Calculations: Moles of Aniline: 0. 7 g C6H5NH2 / X x 93. 3 g C6H5NH2 / 1 mole = 0. 7g / 93. 13 g x X 93. 13 g / 93. 13 g = X = . 0075 mol x 1000 = 7. 5 mmol Moles of acetic anhydride: 1. 08 g C4H6O3 / X x 102. 09 g / 1 mol = 1. 08 g / 102. 09 g x X 102. 09 g / 102. 09 g = X = 0. 0106 mol 1 mL x 1. 08 g / 1 mL = 1. 08 g Limiting Reagent: 0. 7 g C6H5NH2 x 1 mol C6H5NH2/93. 13 g = 1 mo l C8H9NO/ 1 mol C6H5NH2 x 135. 17 g C8H9NO/1 mol C8H9NO = 1. 016 g C8H9NO The limiting reagent is Aniline. Mass of product: .9795 g Acetanilide x 1 mol/135. 17 g Acetanilide = 0. 0073 mol Percent Yield: Percent yield =

Presentation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 8

Presentation - Essay Example Since it’s an emerging market, Stiff competition due to increased number of facilities, Strict and rigid government policies which are not providing them with enough room and a shortage of competent and qualified staff since are the major challenges faced by the organization. The government has been changing its policies, rules and regulations pretty abruptly thus providing the staff and organization with no time to adapt and make things go haphazard. When it comes to the safety of their workers the organization has strict rules and takes serious precautionary measures. Major safety measures include an always ready emergency team and an isolation room for contagious outbreaks. It is the safety measures that keep the facility running and earn the trust of their clients. Time management is one of the most important tasks at a hospital and it is considered to be the duty of a hospital manager to: Prepare timetables, Maintain discipline, Make sure everything is done in order, Perform daily chores, and Keep the hospital managed. If one of the mentioned things goes out of order or the given time table is not followed by the employees, running a healthcare facility would get a lot more difficult for the healthcare executive. It is his duty to keep people at their positions and remind them of what their jobs are. Managers in the field of health and medicine are known as healthcare executives/Hospital managers. These personnel are specially trained to manage either a specialized unit of a hospital or the whole facility. Healthcare executives are also trained to keep them aware of the regularly changing health laws and new regulations. These officials must have some medical knowledge to understand the procedure being undertaken in their facilities and their possible consequence in order to manage any worst outcome. Healthcare executives have a decent pay-scale when compared to the other executive jobs.

Explain the Rise and Fall of Keynesianism Essay

Explain the Rise and Fall of Keynesianism - Essay Example According to the essay "Rise and fall of Keynesianism" findings, Keynesianism suggests that often private sector decisions cause inverse macroeconomic outcomes and hence it is suggestible for the public sector to deliver active policy responses which mainly include central bank’s monetary policy actions and government’s fiscal policy actions. Keynes argues that these activities would assist the economic sector to stabilize output over the business cycle. Although Keynesian theory can be stated thus in simple terms, it comprises larger ideas. To illustrate, Keynesianism has a close similarity with the concept of ‘General Glut’ proposed by classical economists. However, it is identified that classical economists had the disagreement regarding the conditions of the general glut as some of them believed in Say’s law â€Å"supply creates its own demand† (Best, n.d.). In contrast, Keynes argues that insufficiency in aggregate demand for goods can be featured as the direct cause of general glut which would lead to economic decline and subsequent unemployment difficulties. In this situation, Keynesianism recommends (as cited in Blinder) that thoughtful governmental policies can easily overcome such crises if these policies are effectively employed to increase the aggregate demand. This, in turn, would mitigate the adverse impacts of unemployment and deflation. Similarly, Keynesian economics brings some theoretical basis for a crucial distinction between involuntary unemployment and voluntary unemployment. ... This in turn would mitigate the adverse impacts of unemployment and deflation. Similarly, Keynesian economics brings some theoretical basis for a crucial distinction between involuntary unemployment and voluntary unemployment. From the Keynesian point of view (as cited in Knoop, 2010, p.40), the individuals who seek jobs at the existing wage rates can be grouped into involuntary unemployed. Corry (n.d.) reflects that Keynes’ innovative concepts produced some revolutionary changes in the economic sector since the traditional economists believed that unemployment was resulted from certain labour market rigidities such as ‘excessive wage claim, trade union activities, and unemployment pay’ (ibid). According to Keynesianism, the increasing unemployment rate can be directly attributed to the failure in total spending caused by the inefficient business decisions of private firms. Therefore, it is obvious that government has to play a crucial role in formulating efficien t growth policies which would facilitate sustainable economic growth of the country. In short, Keynesian economics constitutes a demand based economy (Reference for Business). Limitations The Keynesian economics gave greater emphasis on employees’ wage rates without considering the profitability of the firm. Although, it had aided the nation to ensure employee welfare, the constancy of this system was always subject to change. For instance, sometimes, international competition adversely affected the capital requirements and public expenditure of the nation. In such difficult situations, the government failed to meet adequate funds for wage distribution. As

Gender sex paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Gender sex paper - Essay Example y, a ninth-grade student, describes herself as "a pretty good guitar player" and "an excellent math student who cant understand chemistry." She says shes "wild and extroverted" with friends in her band, yet is "shy and quiet" at school. Peggys self-description reflects. This was one of the greatest social experiments research came across with because it was a real interaction with a real girl that was not aware of her social stratifications or gender roles. She was with the boys in the toy’s section but was very oblivious to â€Å"how a girl† should act. Society has defined gender roles including the concept of ‘cult of domesticity.’ Women and men have defined social roles, which confused transgender people because they fail to understand their identity. The question remains- how do LGBT and transgender fit into this category? Gender roles is an intriguing subject that takes into account of several aspects. One can argue that gender roles emerge from culture due to various reasons. Cultures adhere to gender roles because they assign responsibilities to each gender based on family needs. For example, women in eastern cultures have to follow the cult of domesticity. The cult of domesticity is a generic phrase for women to stay at home, clean the house, cook the food, and raise the children. In this model, the men are the bread winners. The cult of domesticity is a generic phrase for women to stay at home, clean the house, cook the food, and raise the children. In this model, the men are the bread winners. The idea of gender disparity in school, government and overall progression of women is clearly hindered in these cultures. I saw both cases in which girls independently paid for themselves whereas some men took the initiative to pay for their significant other, showing strong sense of â€Å"breadwinner.† Identity is absolutely essential for transgender because they don’t have the epistemic feel to belong. Imagine an individual who cannot belong. This

Business Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Business Law - Essay Example F12A (Meaning of dangerous driving) further states ‘For the purposes of sections 1 and 2 above a person is to be regarded as driving dangerously if (and, subject to subsection (2) below, only if) — (a) the way he drives falls far below what would be expected of a competent and careful driver, and (b) it would be obvious to a competent and careful driver that driving in that way would be dangerous’ (legislation.gov.uk). Moreover, section 131A (Compensation in respect of suspension) of the Road Traffic Act (1988) states ‘The Secretary of State must by regulations make a scheme for the making of payments by the Secretary of State to persons’ (legislation.gov.uk). He is offering service for a cost to prospective clients which is a contract implied and this comes under the purview of Consumer Protection Act. The Transport Company has the obligation of taking care of the passenger safety. Persons driving any type of vehicle are to have to be insured under R oad Traffic Act 1988, UK (legislation.gov.uk). Though the driver applied brakes to avoid hitting a lorry, it was the duty of the driver to notice the lorry well in advance and bring the vehicle under control, which could have averted applying brakes instantly. The passengers can make their claim against the driver’s insurance company. ... The passengers also have their responsibility of not violating the instructions during a journey and insist that the children should be restrained to the seats with adequate safety measures (Williams and Zador: 69). This can be applied here also. 1. b) 17 Hastings L.J. 165 (1965-1966)  Enterprise Liability: Some Exploratory Comments; Steffen, Roscoe  opines that the action of the employer is responsible for the employee action or the product. The proof of a defective service provided by any service provider to the consumer, is sufficient to claim compensation. Hence, in this case the Lancung Transport shall also become liable for the action of the driver. According to the ‘Owner Liability’ Law this can be grouped under ‘vicarious liability (hse.gov.uk). Annex to Paper HSC/04/131 of the Health and Safety Executive UK, part 13, states ‘ In summary, the Health and Safety Commission has not therefore achieved aim of denying all third parties the right to brin g civil claims for a breach of duty imposed by health and safety regulations. Further, and for the reasons out below, employers could be vicariously liable to third parties for an employee’s breach of statutory duty under regulation 14’ (hse.gov.uk). The Transport company can be held liable for the action of the driver, who is an employee working for the principal. The company or the employer is liable for the mistakes committed by its employees. The company can be held responsible either jointly or severally for the negligent act of the employee who is on their employment chart, under the doctrine of "respondeat superior" (Larson). As per this doctrine, an employer shall become responsible for the actions of the employee within the purview of their

Organisational Effectiveness at Google and P&G Essay

Organisational Effectiveness at Google and P&G - Essay Example Employee swapping produces risks of reduced morale and poor alignment of cultures. Nonetheless, this case showed that Google and P&G can learn from one another’s cultural values and practices, so that they can both enhance their organisational effectiveness. Table of Contents Executive Summary 1 Table of Contents 2 Introduction 3 Competing Values Model 4 Overview 4 Applications 4 Employee Swapping 5 P&G and Google’s Employee Swapping 5 Conclusion 7 Reference List 8 Introduction The construct of organisational effectiveness is an important concept in organisational studies because organisations commonly aspire to improve or attain organisational effectiveness. Organisational effectiveness, however, is hard to measure because it does not possess a universally-agreed definition. As a result, several scholars criticised its significance to organisations, such as Steers (1975) and Hannan and Freeman (1977). Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983) offer a model of effectiveness criteria i n â€Å"A Spatial Model of Effectiveness Criteria: Towards a Competing Values Approach to Organizational Analysis.† They conducted a two-part exploratory investigation on how individual theorists and researchers conceive the construct of organisational effectiveness. The first study included seven experts, while the second used 45 theorists and scholars. Findings showed that organisational effectiveness can be constructed using three axes of values: control-flexibility, internal-external, and means-ends. These values pertained to the critical issues of â€Å"competing values† in defining and measuring effectiveness, which has been embodied in the competing values framework (CVF) (Quinn and Rohrbaugh 1983, p.370). This paper applies the Competing Values Approach to Google and Procter & Gamble (P&G), as well as employee swapping. Competing Values Model Overview The Competing Values Approach is composed of three competing values, and they are control-flexibility, internal -external, and means-ends. These values offer four mid-range theories of organisational analysis: open systems model, human relations model, internal process model, and rational goal model (Quinn and Rohrbaugh 1983, p.369). The human relations model highlights on flexibility and internal focus. The open systems model concentrates on flexibility and external focus. The rational goal model prioritises control and external focus, while the internal process model emphasises stability and control (Quinn and Rohrbaugh 1983, p.371). Applications Procter & Gamble. P&G is described as having an internal process model with hierarchical and market attributes. It uses information management and communication to attain the ends of stability and control (Quinn and Rohrbaugh 1983, p.371). In terms of culture, it possesses a mixture of market and hierarchical cultures. It has a market culture because employees behave according to clear objectives and are rewarded through their achievements (Hartnel l, Ou and Kinicki 2011, p.679). The company’s main values are communication, competition, and achievement. P&G is effective in gathering customer and competitor information and developing the competitiveness of its products (Robbins, Judge and Campbell 2010, p.480). P&G is also hierarchical because of rules and regulations that clearly define roles and responsibilities. Behaviours are characterised with conformity and predictability, which it wants to change by swapping employees with Google (Robbins,

Power in Organizations Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Power in Organizations - Assignment Example    However, this perspective is limited by the limits of human abilities with regard to both individual ability to rationalize and overall cost of adopting a rational strategy in terms of personal, social and organizational costs. The exploitative perception, on the other hand, focuses on Marxist theory of exploitation. It speaks about the exploitation of different groups of persons in society by other classes of people. Such exploitation of segments of the population is a distinct feature of capitalistic, free markets where capital is the dominant factor. Capital is viewed as a social resource rather than a physical economic resource used to extract value of labor. This management approach considers workers as mere exploitable productive labor, and the value of workers’ wages is unequal to the value of products they make. Through this system, management always ensures surplus values that are enjoyed by the capitalists. Marxist theorists define exploitation as the labor theory of value, which affirms that the market price of a commodity is a function of quantity of labor time socially required to create the product. Therefore, because the organization makes profits on account of its workers, then the wo rkers are deemed to be exploited. The limitation of this approach is that the nature of work remains boring and mechanical, and the relationship between employers and employees remains hostile because labor is forced and workers are antagonized by their employers leading to low morale (Thomas, 2003).

How Life Can Be Changeable and Incredibly Frenzied Essay - 4

How Life Can Be Changeable and Incredibly Frenzied - Essay Example It was until his condition became worse that he qualified for palliative care and a number of nurses as well as social workers could attend to him. His conditions included pneumonia and caused his chest to grow wheezy. This disease was identifies as the best friend for my father since it offered an opportunity for slow death. Butler’s entire essay depicts a literal and emotional piece especially since it is about the slow death of her father. Bridget Potter in her essay ‘The lucky Girl’ describes her endeavors as she tries to get rid of an unwanted pregnancy during the eras when it was illegal. She uses her story to explain the dangers that women had to undergo prior to legalization of abortion in America. In her story, she points out most people especially women seeking for abortion lack any other option in mind even if realistically adoption is an option. This is the reason she has to beg the doctors to claim her condition as necrotic so that she would undergo t he process of abortion in a hospital. Performing illegal abortions can cause unnecessary deaths and for this reason, it would only be fair to let women choose affordable, safe and legal methods of abortions. In the essay ‘Topic of Cancer’, Christopher Hitchens provides information about his struggles with esophagus cancer. He confirms that a number of times, he had woken up feeling like death, but it did not feel as it did when it was confirmed that he had the cancer illness. In his description, he explains that he felt like he had manacled to his own corpse. In his essay, it is essential to identify the intellectual rather than the emotional bit since it actually dominates his entire writing. The theme of death and suffering that accompanies it are very evident in this essay as Hitchens describes the pain he felt from his thorax and chest. An individual listening to his description can picture the breathing struggles he had to endure, and as he explains how the above p arts appeared to have emptied out and then replenished with cement that was slowly drying. Breathing is the ideal meaning of life since difficulties in breathing result to much negativity such as excessive beating of the heart and strenuous efforts in doing simple things like breathing and walking. According to Hitchens, emergency individuals are kind hearted, engage professionalism and courtesy, and the ability to save lives. Those used in the essay that assisted Hitchens carefully worked on his heart and lungs guaranteeing that he did not have to put up with death. In the three essays, sickness and death are common themes although is one of the essay, the Lucky Girl, the condition is not really sickness. Hitchens’s and Butler’s essay provide a clear analysis of the differences of the employees in hospitals. The emergency crew in Hitchen’s essay is very humble and passionate and treats him with great care to the extent that his treatment is fruitful: resulting to his survival. On the other hand, the nurses providing medication for Butler’s father were ignorant and did not identify the causative disease for her father’s death. If they would have identified the initial signs of pneumonia, they would have had a reason to hospitalize him and offer him the required treatment. Similarly, Potter shows the kind of attitude that Doctors have towards assisting some of the patients who are in great need.

Marketing and Nike Essay Example for Free

Marketing and Nike Essay Q. N. 1: What have been the key success factors for Nike? Ans. The key success factors for Nike are their exciting marketing strategy, product innovation and staying to the mission which is â€Å"To bring, inspiration and innovation to every athlete in the world.† These are as follows: * Nike established a strong brand name through designing innovative footwear for serious athletes. * Nike’s management has found most significant celebrity support: the right collaboration between celebrity and product. * Nike stayed focused on being an authentic sports and fitness company serving the athlete and sports minded people. * Nike’s campaign even featured an 80 year old long distance runner with the slogan â€Å"Just Do It† that placed the emphasis on self-empowerment through sports and fitness for all ages. * Making corrections and change of the American style ads in Europe also a key factor for success. Q. N. 2: Where is the Nike vulnerable? What should they watch out for? Ans. Vulnerable points of Nike as well as its solution are as below: * There is one fact, when using celebrity endorsements Nike advertisers need to keep in mind that is to never let the celebrity become your brand. If so, the company will run the risk of killing the brand as soon as celebrity becomes faded. * Selecting a spokesperson whose characteristics are congruent with the brand image. * Nike deals with only one product line that it footwear. In this circumstance, it should watch out for diversification of the products to increase the maker share. Q. N. 3: What recommendations would you make to their senior marketing executives going forward? Ans. For going forward senior marketing executives of Nike can follow the recommendations as below: * Find the right collaboration between celebrity and product. * Promote prospective display that is going global and evaluate current position rate. * Watch out for diversification of product line. * Collecting feedback from customers about the products quality * Customize the advertisement for the customer of different culture in different region. Q. N. 4: What should they be sure to do with their marketing? Ans. They be sure to manage their marketing system in a proper way that it is satisfying the customer needs and wants keeping pace with the time. They can give importance to the following topics: * Be sure that your product performance quality is ok as you advertise. * Ensure innovation on designing the product. * Collect ideas from customers to improve the product * Make aware the customer about the continuous improvement * Establish Customer Relationship Management.

Resume Cover Letter Essay Example for Free

Resume Cover Letter Essay I am submitting the enclosed resume for the Resident Assistant position, which first appeared to me through Facebook. My background of customer service and education will help me apply for this position. First of all, I would love to be a Resident Assistant. I enjoy working with others, and helping people solve their problems. I know being a RA will help me in many ways. I will be able to make new friends and get to know people better; I will have a higher chance getting into future jobs with this experience, and I will be a leader for other people in need to follow. When I worked at McDonald’s for more than a year I learned how exactly to talk to people. You might think working at McDonald’s would not prepare me for anything in life, but I learned when to be polite and when to be stern when frustrated customers would come to me complaining about their food. I had to deal with many uncomfortable situations which I knew how to deal with perfectly. I manage to stay calm in stressful situations. I am enthusiastic about exploring new opportunities with this job. I want to thank you for taking time to read my letter, and I hope to meet with you about this job.

Reflection In Occupational Therapy Practice

Reflection In Occupational Therapy Practice I have always struggled with reflection, initially I didnt see the point of going over and over events that had happened, I was confident that the action I had taken at the time was right for the moment, but if I felt that it wasnt I would acknowledge that and improve next time, obviously this process is going on in my head, (according to Schon this is Reflection in action), and improves with experience over time, I can understand how reflecting can help with thought and behavioural processes, and also provides evidence so others can see the outcomes of my actions. It seems to me that reflection is used to teach people skills that they may not have, some people are good with people and some are not, I do not think that is something that can be taught. You either have it or you dont. Initially I was quite apprehensive with my choice of placement community mental health having worked, with adults with mental health problems, in the past, I was basing my past experience on what I would experience at the placement; and my past experiences had not always been positive, so I was maybe a little anxious to start with. What I found was totally different to my preconceptions, I had never experienced group work before, and was interested with the impact this would have on the service users and also what the Occupational Therapy (OT) role was. The therapists were there to facilitate, and support the group processes, initially I queried that the OTs were more counsellors than OTs, and many had chosen to gain a counselling qualification to aid their role. Then again If everything is about occupation and has meaning to someone, then to enable an individual with low self esteem, or mild depression to engage with their fellow peers could be part of the OT role, especially if i t enables them to participate in work, leisure and self care. My critical incident is taken from one experience in a creative group, half way through my placement. Reflective practice is not a new concept Boud, Keogh and Walker (1985) stated 20 years ago that it features the individual and their experiences, leading to a new conceptual perspective or understanding. They included the element of learning, as well as involvement of the self, to define reflective practice: â€Å"Reflection is a forum of response of the learner to experience† (Boud et al. 1985) Johns and Freshwater (1998) also described the value of reflective practice as a means of learning. There is no doubt that â€Å"reflection† is a complex concept that has defied consensus on definition although some commonalities exist. It involves the self and is triggered by questioning of actions, values and beliefs. An understanding of the purpose of reflective practice and its components can be gained by considering some of the definitions provided in literature. A few useful definitions include the following: †¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"Reflection is a process of reviewing an experience of practice in order to describe, analyse, evaluate and so inform learning about practice† (Reid, 1993) †¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"Reflective practice is something more than thoughtful practice. It is that form of practice that seeks to problematise many situations of professional performance so that they can become potential learning situations and so the practitioners can continue to learn, grow and develop in and through practice† (Jarvis, 1992). To maximise learning through critical reflection we need to locate ourselves within the experience and explore available theory, knowledge and experience to understand the experience in different ways. Thus Boyd Fales (1983) claim that critical reflection: †¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"is the core difference between whether a person repeats the same experience several times becoming highly proficient at ones behaviour, or learns from experience in such a way that he or she is cognitively or affectively changed†. Critical reflection is viewed as transformational learning which according to Baumgartner (2001) can happen either gradually or from a sudden or critical incident and alter the way people see themselves and their world. According to Kolb (1984) reflecting is an essential element of learning. He developed the cycle of experiential learning which has formed the basis of many models for reflective practice in the past two decades. Kolb draws attention to the fact that, when we want to learn from something that has already happened to us, we need to recall our observations of the event and then reflect on those observations in some way. Once we have these ideas in our heads, Kolb suggests that we frame some action as a result and that this possible course of action is seen as our ‘learning. This will then inform any action that we take as a result of the experience. Kolb (1984) advocated that experiential learning was a cyclical process, emphasising that there was no end to learning but just another cycle. The crux of experiential learning is that the learner in not a passive recipient of education, but actively explores and tests their environment. Schon (1983) suggests that we can engage in reflection in one of two ways; either by ‘reflecting on action, after the experience, or by ‘reflecting in action, during the experience. When reflecting-on-action, the first step in the process is the description of the incident. Much attention has been given to the value of recording events and experiences in written form, particularly through the use of reflective diaries and journals (Zubbrizarreta 1999 and Tryssenaar 1995). The exercise of diary writing promotes both the qualities required for reflection, i.e. Open-mindedness and motivation and also the skills i.e. self-awareness; description and observation; critical analysis and problem-solving; and synthesis and evaluation (Richardson Maltby, 1995). www.practicebasedlearning.org Pre-requisites for effective reflective practice include honesty and openness. Gillings (2000) states that a commitment to self-enquiry and a readiness to change practice are important if the individual is to get the most out of the process. Many authors identify self-awareness as essential to the reflective process. This implies that the individual needs to be well informed of their own character, including beliefs and values. Many models of reflective practice also include self awareness and questioning of beliefs, values and attitudes. The last stage of many models of reflection relates to a willingness to change practice, where new conceptual perspectives are reached in order to inform practice. If the learner is not willing to change practice they will not gain the potential benefits from the process in terms of practice development, advances will not be made and professional practice will not evolve. As an OT professional I am required to use clinical reasoning skills which enable me to make responsible therapeutic decisions; these decisions are based on professional judgements which are guided by individual morals and ethical values. (Sabonis-Chafee Hussey 1998) My understanding of morals will be dependent upon my background, social environment, values and possibly religious beliefs, whilst ethics is: ‘†¦the study and philosophy of human contact†¦ (Purtilo, cited in Sabonis-Chafee Hussey 1998) Every professional organisation has a code of ethical conduct and core values, these provide a guideline for making decisions and choices that can be regarded as proper (Creek 2003), and to assist professionals in practising the values and principles that promote and maintain high standards in OT. The main principles outlined in the code of ethics include; the ability to demonstrate concern for the well being of the client, cause no harm, respect the rights of all involved, maintain a high level of competency, to comply with laws and set policies, to be truthful and accurate and refrain from false claims. An understanding of ethics gives me positive general guidance rather than defining limits to certain behaviours. Ethics influence every aspect of occupational therapy. Beginning in OT education when issues of plagiarism, library resources, and confidentiality begin, and then in the clinical environment from supervision, practice issues and client issues. (Duncan 2006) In the last 20 years, reflection has gradually become more popular in care and healing professions. In many quarters, the reflective practitioner is seen as a crucial sign of the ideal practitioner. Not everyone agrees though, that truly professional or expert practitioners are or should be reflective practitioners. According to Dreyfus, real professionalism is characterised by the absence of reflection. Only novices and beginners need to think about what they are doing. Expert practitioners, in contrast, just do what needs to be done; they do it without thinking about it Practitioners, novices or experts, reflect when they consider what to do in somehow unusual situations, when they try to figure out how to handle a new and unexpected problem, when they have to choose between two nearly identical options. Kinsella (2001), in advocating reflective practice for occupational therapists, emphasised the need for both reflection and action on that reflection (praxis). From this perspective, in order to learn from the reflective experience it is necessary to alter the normal way of responding. Argyris and Schà ¶n (1974) termed this ‘double-loop learning. The act of paying attention to what would normally be routine may become part of a long process, with the stimulus being noticed again and again until further deliberate reflection is required. Schà ¶n (1983) noted that reflection-in-action was precipitated by a surprise, something not expected, interrupting the normal flow of experience. However, there are almost certainly ways in which a reflection is triggered other than this. An educational event may do this or a series of conversations with a colleague or an observation of a colleagues practice (reflection-on-action). Critical Incident: Creative Group K was attending a weekly creative group at the unit, it was 2 weeks before Christmas and we were making paper chains. K had a very limited attention span and could be quite disruptive, during quiet periods in the group she would whistle, sigh, hum, tap fingers or pencils on the table which we would ignore focusing instead on her creative project. The previous week K had referred to the OT as ‘Blondie which I thought was inappropriate and mentioned this to the OT, she said she had been aware but had chosen to ignore the incident and see what would happen this week. I had chosen to use scissors with a crinkly edge and because of this, from then on K referred to me as Smart-Arse or as The Student, I didnt feel she was trying to be nasty, I felt she thought she was making a joke. I informed her that my name was Julia in case she had forgotten and carried on with what I was doing. H the OT commented on her using the word smart a lot and wondered why that was. K replied that she was surrounded by smart people and hoped that some of it may rub off on her. We asked if she felt uncomfortable in the group and why she felt she wasnt smart and she replied that was what she had been told all her life. K was definitely street smart, but possibly had mild learning difficulties. She then changed the subject and we spoke about her Xmas decorations, after that she called me Julia and the OT by her name. Why did I choose to respond to K? Because I felt she was disrespecting group boundaries To get her to stop To be aware of respecting others in the group There may have been another reason for her hostility What happened then? She stopped She chose to share personal experiences with the group about her life and her feelings. How was the situation handled? I feel the situation was handled well, I did not get angry, I brought her attention to my name, and with the OT we made inquiry into her reasons for her behaviour, she did not get angry. Any legal or professional issues? I had to maintain a professional manner throughout the situation, I may have been ‘The Student but there was an expectation, I may not have been in uniform but in that capacity I was a professional, so needed to be aware of attitudes, boundaries, and behaviour. Johns model for structured reflection (1994) is more of a list of key questions to guide an analysis of a incident or general experience. Johns recognizes the benefits of sharing reflections which is an essential part of building a community of practice and the importance of the situatedness of an incident as highlighted by the attention given to influencing factors and learning as involving considering actions to support others: Description: Drawing out of the key issues within an experience through a description of thoughts and feelings and contextual background of the experience Reflection: Examination of ones motivations and the resulting actions, the consequences of actions for all stakeholders (including their possible emotional reactions). Influencing factors: Determining internal and external factors that influenced decisions and actions.Determine knowledge that did or should have influenced decisions and actions. Alternative strategies: Evaluation of ones actions and consideration of other possible choices and their respective consequences. Learning: Situating the experience and feelings within past experience and future practice and in providing support to others and considering the impact the experience will have on reflection-in-action. By using Johns reflective model as a guide, I have been able to reflect on the incident and this has enabled me to evaluate the actions that I took during the incident, questioning whether my response was appropriate. It has also allowed me to think of other ways I could have dealt with the situation and the possible outcomes. The reflective strategy has helped me to learn from this experience and has given me an insight into how I might improve my own future practice. It has also shown me that, by continuing the reflective process by following reflective frameworks such as Johns in future incidents, I may improve the ways of dealing with situations, and acknowledging that I am actually learning something from every experience that I have. Conclusion Reflective practice has been identified as one of the key ways practitioners can learn from personal experience. In education it is recognised as an essential tool for students to enable them to make the links between theory and practice. It enables practitioners to develop knowledge and skills necessary for professional practitioners. Reflective practice can be summarised as experience-reflection-action (ERA) and seen as a cycle and having the following components: Things (experiences) that happen to a person The reflective process that enables the person to learn from those experiences The action that results from the new perspectives that are taken. Reflective practice uses personal experience as a starting point for learning, by thinking about these experiences in a purposeful way the individual can understand them differently and take action as a result. The learning acquired using reflective practice differs from the theory which underpins practice, it is also different from the skills acquired from interacting with others because it involves thinking about things and actively making decisions, therefore reflective practice bridges the gap between pure theory and directed practice by providing a strategy that helps to develop understanding and learning. The importance of reflection has been reinforced to me in writing up this critical incident, because I hadnt realised how important maintaining boundaries were, and the showing of mutual respect. Continuing professional education is also accepted as having an important role in facilitating change in practice. It is argued here that reflection on practice is the means to ensure continuing development of both individuals and the profession in order to meet the challenge of change. Reflection may also be prompted by a challenge from another occupational therapist, a multidisciplinary team member or a student. Reflective diaries and written assignments are also useful ways of prompting application of theory to practice. In addition to applying theory to practice, literature searching, critiquing and reviewing, essential to postgraduate education, also stimulate reflection. References: Alsop, A. (2000/2004) Continuing Professional Development for therapists. U.K. Blackwell Science Available on-line at http://0www.netlibrary.com.serlib0.essex.ac.uk/Reader/ Baumgartner LM (2001) An update on transformational learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education. No89:15-22. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Boud D, Keogh R Walker D (1985) Reflection: turning experience into learning. Kogan Page, London. Boyd E Fales A (1983) reflective learning: the key to learning from experience. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 23 (2): 99-117 Clutterbuck, D. (1998) Learning Alliances: Tapping into Talent. Institute of Personnel and Development, London. Creek, J. (2003) Occupational Therapy defined as a Complex Intervention London: College of Occupational Therapists. Available from: http://www.cot.co.uk/public/publications/skills/ot_definition/intro.php (Accessed 13 Jan 2010) Dimond, B.C. (2004) Legal Aspects of Occupational Therapy (2nd ed.) Oxford. Blackwell Science Duncan, E. (2006) Foundations for Practice in Occupational Therapy (4th ed) Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. Jasper, M. (2003) Beginning Reflective Practice Foundations in Nursing and Health Care. Cheltenham. Nelson Thornes Ltd Johns C (2000) Becoming a reflective practitioner. Blackwell Science, Oxford. Kolb DA (1984) experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Mattingly, C and Fleming M (1994) Clinical Reasoning Forms of Therapeutic Practice Philadelphia. F.A. Davis Moon J (1999) Reflection in Learning Professional Development. Kogan Page, London. Reid B (1993) ‘But were Doing it Already! Exploring a Response to the Concept of Reflective practice in Order to improve its Facilitation Nurse Education Today, 13: 305- 309. Richardson G Maltby H (1995) reflection on practice: enhancing student learning. Journal of advanced Nursing. 22:235-242. Roberts, A E K (2002) Advancing Practice through Continuing Professional Education: the Case for Reflection British Journal of Occupational Therapy May 65(5) Schon, D.A. (1995) The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. New York. Basic Books Sabonis-Chaffe B, Hussey S, M (1998) Introduction to Occupational Therapy 2nd edition, Mosby, USA Tryssenaar J (1999) Interactive journals: an educational strategy to promote reflection. American Journal of Occupational Therapy 49 (7), 695-702. Wackerhausen, s (2009) Collaboration, Professional Identity and Reflection across Boundaries. Journal of Physical Health 463 472 Zubrizarreta J (1999) Teaching portfolios: an effective strategy for faculty development in occupational therapy. American Journal of Occupational Therapy 53(1), 51-55.

Electronic Voting Essay examples -- Essays Papers

Electronic Voting Gunmen on the grassy knoll, AIDS, landing on the moon, chemtrails, UFO’s, CIA mind control and Waco are some of the well-known conspiracies. But what about George W. Bush’s re-election? This cynicism goes beyond political rhetoric and focuses on our ability to participate in a representative democracy. Developed by the ancient Greeks, one of the first voting systems involved dropping bronze disks into barrels. As technology progressed, the advancements in voting systems surrendered an unacceptable system that lacks accuracy despite public outcry for a paper-verified trail. A voting system has four characteristics: accuracy, anonymity, scalability, and speed. Current electronic voting machines claim to posses these qualities, but to whose standards? Perfection is not reality and human errors are inevitable. Therefore, elimination of controllable errors becomes top priority. Each state must burden this task without national standards resulting in computer technology as a quick fix to a problem. Maryland primarily uses Diebold Direct Electronic Votin...

Comparing Characters in the Coen Brothers Miller’s Crossing and Willia

Comparing Characters in the Coen Brothers' Miller’s Crossing and William Kennedy's Legs The movie Miller’s Crossing and the novel Legs by William Kennedy have two characters that have a special quality, which adds dramatically to their characterization. The main character of Miller’s Crossing, Tom Reagan, and the main character from Legs; Jack Diamond shares many similar traits and symbolic equivalence. In particular they had an item that they wore or carried, and this item had the ability to show what is going on inside the character’s mind. Not only did the items have the ability to tell what was on their mind; it also has the ability to foreshadow. At times in the novel where their mind/conscience was tested, the use of their items determined the outcome. The body can not live without the mind, so it is important for the characters to remain close to these items that symbolize their mind or they will surly die. Tom Reagan had a dream in which his hat fell off his head and the wind blew it away. He did not run after the hat in the dream. However in reality he kept the hat close to him at all costs. The dream is the opening to the movie and is explained during a conversation with Verna. During the movie he is seen with the hat and without. The trend his hat wearing follows with when engaging in sex it is off, and actually gets its own scene of being thrown on to a chair or something of that nature. For the most part, it is also seen without his hat when somethin...

Symbols, Symbolism, and Metaphor in The Great Gatsby Essay -- Great Ga

Metaphors and Symbolisms in The Great Gatsby    In the novel The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald uses many different metaphors and symbolisms to express his point.   In this essay the point that I wish to make is how Fitzgerald uses colors to develop image, feelings, and scenery depiction to let the reader feel the emotions and other aspects being portrayed in that particular part in the book.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Like every other essay one must address the major points that will be addressed.  Ã‚  Ã‚   This essay suggests the hopefulness of Nick's venture in the East and of Gatsby's dream to win Daisy.   Fitzgerald uses the colors of white and green as suggestions of future promise.   As the novel unfolds and the uselessness of the dream is developed, the colors become garish shades such as gold, silver, and pink.      Ã‚  Ã‚   White and green are shown throughout the beginning of the novel, first, through green and white luminous light.   Daisy is constantly shown in white. When Nick first sees his cousin (Daisy), she is wearing a white dress.   In my mind, white depicts virginity, innocence, honesty, wealth, and the appearance of cleanliness.   Later on I will discuss how this image of Daisy is false. She is extremely corrupt, and all her actions are based on self-gratitude. Green is also portrayed in the earlier parts of this novel.   It is a symbol of hope.   This probably is referring to Gatsby's second chance at romance with Daisy, and his dream with America being able to make all your dreams come true.   Gatsby believes that there is hope for his future relationship with Daisy.   We view his r... ... being swollen with silver, as if to say that it was done in a bad way.      Ã‚  Ã‚   The last color portrayed heavily when discussing the character of Gatsby is pink.   Pink is a sign of embarrassment.   When Gatsby states that Daisy never loved Tom, she has always been in love with him, he was shocked to hear from her own mouth that she loved both of them.   This placed Gatsby in a very uncomfortable situation and   this event finally brought him over the edge.      Ã‚  Ã‚   Over the course of this novel we saw how the plot slowly changes from the rich and exquisite life of the wealthy, to the stubborn, arrogant, and selfish values that each of these characters possessed, especially Gatsby. Corruption reigned so high in their society; it was viewed as something to be of usual nature.    Symbols, Symbolism, and Metaphor in The Great Gatsby Essay -- Great Ga Metaphors and Symbolisms in The Great Gatsby    In the novel The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald uses many different metaphors and symbolisms to express his point.   In this essay the point that I wish to make is how Fitzgerald uses colors to develop image, feelings, and scenery depiction to let the reader feel the emotions and other aspects being portrayed in that particular part in the book.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Like every other essay one must address the major points that will be addressed.  Ã‚  Ã‚   This essay suggests the hopefulness of Nick's venture in the East and of Gatsby's dream to win Daisy.   Fitzgerald uses the colors of white and green as suggestions of future promise.   As the novel unfolds and the uselessness of the dream is developed, the colors become garish shades such as gold, silver, and pink.      Ã‚  Ã‚   White and green are shown throughout the beginning of the novel, first, through green and white luminous light.   Daisy is constantly shown in white. When Nick first sees his cousin (Daisy), she is wearing a white dress.   In my mind, white depicts virginity, innocence, honesty, wealth, and the appearance of cleanliness.   Later on I will discuss how this image of Daisy is false. She is extremely corrupt, and all her actions are based on self-gratitude. Green is also portrayed in the earlier parts of this novel.   It is a symbol of hope.   This probably is referring to Gatsby's second chance at romance with Daisy, and his dream with America being able to make all your dreams come true.   Gatsby believes that there is hope for his future relationship with Daisy.   We view his r... ... being swollen with silver, as if to say that it was done in a bad way.      Ã‚  Ã‚   The last color portrayed heavily when discussing the character of Gatsby is pink.   Pink is a sign of embarrassment.   When Gatsby states that Daisy never loved Tom, she has always been in love with him, he was shocked to hear from her own mouth that she loved both of them.   This placed Gatsby in a very uncomfortable situation and   this event finally brought him over the edge.      Ã‚  Ã‚   Over the course of this novel we saw how the plot slowly changes from the rich and exquisite life of the wealthy, to the stubborn, arrogant, and selfish values that each of these characters possessed, especially Gatsby. Corruption reigned so high in their society; it was viewed as something to be of usual nature.   

Foucault Power

The Subject and Power Author(s): Michel Foucault Source: Critical Inquiry, Vol. 8, No. 4 (Summer, 1982), pp. 777-795 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/1343197 . Accessed: 26/09/2011 07:49 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive.We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email  protected] org. The University of Chicago Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Critical Inquiry. http://www. jstor. org The Subject and Power Michel Foucault Why Study Power? The Question of the Subject The ideas which I wo uld like to discuss here represent neither a theory nor a methodology. I would like to say, first of all, what has been the goal of my work during the last twenty years.It has not been to analyze the phenomena of power, nor to elaborate the foundations of such an analysis. My objective, instead, has been to create a history of the different modes by which, in our culture, human beings are made subjects. My work has dealt with three modes of objectification which transform human beings into subjects. The first is the modes of inquiry which try to give themselves the status of sciences; for example, the objectivizing of the speaking subject in grammaire generale, philology, and linguistics.Or again, in this first mode, the objectivizing of the productive subject, the subject who labors, in the analysis of wealth and of economics. Or, a third example, the objectivizing of the sheer fact of being alive in natural history or biology. In the second part of my work, I have studied the obje ctivizing of the subject in what I shall call â€Å"dividing practices. † The subject is either This essay was written by Michel Foucault as an afterword to Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralismand Hermeneuticsby Hubert L.Dreyfus and Paul Rabinow and reprinted by arrangement with the University of Chicago Press. â€Å"Why Study Power? The Question of the Subject† was written in English by Foucault; â€Å"How Is Power Exercised? † was translated from the French by Leslie Sawyer. Critical Inqury 8 (Summer 1982) , 1982 by The Uni ersity of Chicago. 0093-1896/82/0804-0006$01. 00. All rights reserved. 777 778 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power divided inside himself or divided from others. This process objectivizes him. Examples are the mad and the sane, the sick and the healthy, the criminals and the â€Å"good boys. Finally, I have sought to study-it is my current work-the way a human being turns himself into a subject. For example, I have chosen the domain of s exuality-how men have learned to recognize themselves as subjects of â€Å"sexuality. † Thus, it is not power but the subject which is the general theme of my research. It is true that I became quite involved with the question of power. It soon appeared to me that, while the human subject is placed in relations of production and of signification, he is equally placed in power relations which are very complex.Now, it seemed to me that economic history and theory provided a good instrument for relations of production and that linguistics and semiotics offered instruments for studying relations of signification; but for power relations we had no tools of study. We had recourse only to ways of thinking about power based on legal models, that is: What legitimates power? Or, we had recourse to ways of thinking about power based on institutional models, that is: What is the state? It was therefore necessary to expand the dimensions of a definition of power if one wanted to use this definition in studying the objectivizing of the subject.Do we need a theory of power? Since a theory assumes a prior objectification, it cannot be asserted as a basis for analytical work. But this analytical work cannot proceed without an ongoing conceptualization. And this conceptualization implies critical thought-a constant checking. The first thing to check is what I shall call the â€Å"conceptual needs. † I mean that the conceptualization should not be founded on a theory of the object-the conceptualized object is not the single criterion of a good conceptualization. We have to know the historical conditions which motivate our conceptualization.We need a historical awareness of our present circumstance. The second thing to check is the type of reality with which we are dealing. A writer in a well-known French newspaper once expressed his surprise: â€Å"Why is the notion of power raised by so many people today? Is Michel Foucault has been teaching at the College de Fra nce since 1970. His works include Madness and Civilization (1961), The Birth of the Clinic (1966), Discipline and Punish (1975), and History of Sexuality (1976), the first volume of a projected five-volume study. Critical Inquiry Summer1982 779 it such an important subject?Is it so independent that it can be discussed without taking into account other problems? † This writer's surprise amazes me. I feel skeptical about the assumption that this question has been raised for the first time in the twentieth century. Anyway, for us it is not only a theoretical question but a part of our experience. I'd like to mention only two â€Å"pathological forms†-those two â€Å"diseases of power†-fascism and Stalinism. One of the numerous reasons why they are, for us, so puzzling is that in spite of their historical uniqueness they are not quite original. They used and extended mechanisms already present in most other societies.More than that: in spite of their own internal mad ness, they used to a large extent the ideas and the devices of our political rationality. What we need is a new economy of power relations-the word â€Å"economy† being used in its theoretical and practical sense. To put it in other words: since Kant, the role of philosophy is to prevent reason from going beyond the limits of what is given in experience; but from the same moment-that is, since the development of the modern state and the political management of society-the role of philosophy is also to keep watch over the excessive powers of political rationality, which is a rather high expectation.Everybody is aware of such banal facts. But the fact that they're banal does not mean they don't exist. What we have to do with banal facts is to discover-or try to discover-which specific and perhaps original problem is connected with them. The relationship between rationalization and excesses of political power is evident. And we should not need to wait for bureaucracy or concentr ation camps to recognize the existence of such relations. But the problem is: What to do with such an evident fact? Shall we try reason? To my mind, nothing would be more sterile.First, because the field has nothing to do with guilt or innocence. Second, because it is senseless to refer to reason as the contrary entity to nonreason. Last, because such a trial would trap us into playing the arbitrary and boring part of either the rationalist or the irrationalist. Shall we investigate this kind of rationalism which seems to be specific to our modern culture and which originates in Aufkldrung? I think that was the approach of some of the members of the Frankfurt School. My purpose, however, is not to start a discussion of their works, although they are most important and valuable.Rather, I would suggest another way of investigating the links between rationalization and power. It may be wise not to take as a whole the rationalization of society or of culture but to analyze such a proces s in several fields, each with reference to a fundamental experience: madness, illness, death, crime, sexuality, and so forth. I think that the word â€Å"rationalization† is dangerous. What we have 780 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power to do is analyze specific rationalities rather than always invoke the progress of rationalization in general.Even if the Aufkliirung has been a very important phase in our history and in the development of political technology, I think we have to refer to much more remote processes if we want to understand how we have been trapped in our own history. I would like to suggest another way to go further toward a new economy of power relations, a way which is more empirical, more directly related to our present situation, and which implies more relations between theory and practice. It consists of taking the forms of resistance against different forms of power as a starting point.To use another metaphor, it consists of using this resistance as a chemical catalyst so as to bring to light power relations, locate their position, and find out their point of application and the methods used. Rather than analyzing power from the point of view of its internal rationality, it consists of analyzing power relations through the antagonism of strategies. For example, to find out what our society means by sanity, perhaps we should investigate what is happening in the field of insanity. And what we mean by legality in the field of illegality.And, in order to understand what power relations are about, perhaps we should investigate the forms of resistance and attempts made to dissociate these relations. As a starting point, let us take a series of oppositions which have developed over the last few years: opposition to the power of men over women, of parents over children, of psychiatry over the mentally ill, of medicine over the population, of administration over the ways people live. It is not enough to say that these are anti-authority struggles; we must try to define more precisely what they have in common. . They are â€Å"transversal† struggles; that is, they are not limited to one country. Of course, they develop more easily and to a greater extent in certain countries, but they are not confined to a particular political or economic form of government. 2. The aim of these struggles is the power effects as such. For example, the medical profession is not criticized primarily because it is a profit-making concern but because it exercises an uncontrolled power over people's bodies, their health, and their life and death. 3. These are â€Å"immediate† struggles for two reasons.In such struggles people criticize instances of power which are the closest to them, those which exercise their action on individuals. They do not look for the â€Å"chief enemy† but for the immediate enemy. Nor do they expect to find a solution to their problem at a future date (that is, liberations, revolutions, end of class struggle). In comparison with a theoretical scale of explanations or a revolutionary order which polarizes the historian, they are anarchistic struggles. Critical Inquiry Summer1982 781 But these are not their most original points. The following seem to me to be more specific. . They are struggles which question the status of the individual: on the one hand, they assert the right to be different, and they underline everything which makes individuals truly individual. On the other hand, they attack everything which separates the individual, breaks his links with others, splits up community life, forces the individual back on himself, and ties him to his own identity in a constraining way. These struggles are not exactly for or against the â€Å"individual† but rather they are struggles against the â€Å"government of individualization. 5. They are an opposition to the effects of power which are linked with knowledge, competence, and qualification: struggles against the privileges of knowledge. But they are also an opposition against secrecy, deformation, and mystifying representations imposed on people. There is nothing â€Å"scientistic† in this (that is, a dogmatic belief in the value of scientific knowledge), but neither is it a skeptical or relativistic refusal of all verified truth. What is questioned is the way in which knowledge circulates and functions, its relations to power.In short, the regime du savoir. 6. Finally, all these present struggles revolve around the question: Who are we? They are a refusal of these abstractions, of economic and ideological state violence, which ignore who we are individually, and also a refusal of a scientific or administrative inquisition which determines who one is. To sum up, the main objective of these struggles is to attack not so much â€Å"such or such† an institution of power, or group, or elite, or class but rather a technique, a form of power.This form of power applies itself to imm ediate everyday life which categorizes the individual, marks him by his own individuality, attaches him to his own identity, imposes a law of truth on him which he must recognize and which others have to recognize in him. It is a form of power which makes individuals subjects. There are two meanings of the word â€Å"subject†: subject to someone else by control and dependence; and tied to his own identity by a conscience or self-knowledge. Both meanings suggest a form of power which subjugates and makes subject to.Generally, it can be said that there are three types of struggles: either against forms of domination (ethnic, social, and religious); against forms of exploitation which separate individuals from what they produce; or against that which ties the individual to himself and submits him to others in this way (struggles against subjection, against forms of subjectivity and submission). I think that in history you can find a lot of examples of these three kinds of social struggles, either isolated from each other or mixed together. But even when they are mixed, one of them, most of the time, prevails.For instance, in the feudal societies, the struggles against the 782 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power forms of ethnic or social domination were prevalent, even though economic exploitation could have been very important among the revolt's causes. In the nineteenth century, the struggle against exploitation came into the foreground. And nowadays, the struggle against the forms of subjectionagainst the submission of subjectivity-is becoming more and more important, even though the struggles against forms of domination and exploitation have not disappeared. Quite the contrary. I suspect that it is ot the first time that our society has been confronted with this kind of struggle. All those movements which took place in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and which had the Reformation as their main expression and result should be analyzed as a great c risis of the Western experience of subjectivity and a revolt against the kind of religious and moral power which gave form, during the Middle Ages, to this subjectivity. The need to take a direct part in spiritual life, in the work of salvation, in the truth which lies in the Book-all that was a struggle for a new subjectivity.I know what objections can be made. We can say that all types of subjection are derived phenomena, that they are merely the consequences of other economic and social processes: forces of production, class struggle, and ideological structures which determine the form of subjectivity. It is certain that the mechanisms of subjection cannot be studied outside their relation to the mechanisms of exploitation and domination. But they do not merely constitute the â€Å"terminal† of more fundamental mechanisms. They entertain complex and circular relations with other forms.The reason this kind of struggle tends to prevail in our society is due to the fact that, since the sixteenth century, a new political form of power has been continuously developing. This new political structure, as everybody knows, is the state. But most of the time, the state is envisioned as a kind of political power which ignores individuals, looking only at the interests of the totality or, I should say, of a class or a group among the citizens. That's quite true. But I'd like to underline the fact that the state's power (and that's one of the reasons for its strength) is both an individualizing and a totalizing form of power.Never, I think, in the history of human societies–even in the old Chinese society-has there been such a tricky combination in the same political structures of individualization techniques and of totalization procedures. This is due to the fact that the modern Western state has integrated in a new political shape an old power technique which originated in Christian institutions. We can call this power technique the pastoral power. Critic al Inquiry Summer1982 783 First of all, a few words about this pastoral power.It has often been said that Christianity brought into being a code of ethics fundamentally different from that of the ancient world. Less emphasis is usually placed on the fact that it proposed and spread new power relations throughout the ancient world. Christianity is the only religion which has organized itself as a church. And as such, it postulates in principle that certain individuals can, by their religious quality, serve others not as princes, magistrates, prophets, fortune-tellers, benefactors, educationalists, and so on but as pastors.However, this word designates a very special form of power. 1. It is a form of power whose ultimate aim is to assure individual salvation in the next world. 2. Pastoral power is not merely a form of power which commands; it must also be prepared to sacrifice itself for the life and salvation of the flock. Therefore, it is different from royal power, which demands a sacrifice from its subjects to save the throne. 3. It is a form of power which does not look after just the whole community but each individual in particular, during his entire life. 4.Finally, this form of power cannot be exercised without knowing the inside of people's minds, without exploring their souls, without making them reveal their innermost secrets. It implies a knowledge of the conscience and an ability to direct it. This form of power is salvation oriented (as opposed to political power). It is oblative (as opposed to the principle of sovereignty); it is individualizing (as opposed to legal power); it is coextensive and continuous with life; it is linked with a production of truth-the truth of the individual himself.But all this is part of history, you will say; the pastorate has, if not disappeared, at least lost the main part of its efficiency. This is true, but I think we should distinguish between two aspects of pastoral power-between the ecclesiastical institutional ization, which has ceased or at least lost its vitality since the eighteenth century, and its function, which has spread and multiplied outside the ecclesiastical institution.An important phenomenon took place around the eighteenth century-it was a new distribution, a new organization of this kind of individualizing power. I don't think that we should consider the â€Å"modern state† as an entity which was developed above individuals, ignoring what they are and even their very existence, but, on the contrary, as a very sophisticated structure, in which individuals can be integrated, under one condition: that this individuality would be shaped in a new form and submitted to a set of very specific patterns.In a way, we can see the state as a modern matrix of individualization or a new form of pastoral power. 784 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power A few more words about this new pastoral power. 1. We may observe a change in its objective. It was no longer a question of leading people to their salvation in the next world but rather ensuring it in this world. And in this context, the word â€Å"salvation† takes on different meanings: health, well-being (that is, sufficient wealth, standard of living), security, protection against accidents.A series of â€Å"worldly† aims took the place of the religious aims of the traditional pastorate, all the more easily because the latter, for various reasons, had followed in an accessory way a certain number of these aims; we only have to think of the role of medicine and its welfare function assured for a long time by the Catholic and Protestant churches. 2. Concurrently the officials of pastoral power increased. Sometimes this form of power was exerted by state apparatus or, in any case, by a public institution such as the police. We should not forget that in the eighteenth century the police force was not invented only for maintaining law and order, nor for assisting governments in their struggle again st their enemies, but for assuring urban supplies, hygiene, health, and standards considered necessary for handicrafts and commerce. ) Sometimes the power was exercised by private ventures, welfare societies, benefactors, and generally by philanthropists. But ancient institutions, for example the family, were also mobilized at this time to take on pastoral functions. It was also exercised by complex structures such as medicine, hich included private initiatives with the sale of services on market economy principles, but which also included public institutions such as hospitals. 3. Finally, the multiplication of the aims and agents of pastoral power focused the development of knowledge of man around two roles: one, globalizing and quantitative, concerning the population; the other, analytical, concerning the individual. And this implies that power of a pastoral type, which over centuries-for more than a millennium-had been linked to a defined religious institution, suddenly spread ou t into the whole social body; it found support in a multitude of institutions.And, instead of a pastoral power and a political power, more or less linked to each other, more or less rival, there was an individualizing â€Å"tactic† which characterized a series of powers: those of the family, medicine, psychiatry, education, and employers. At the end of' the eighteenth century, Kant wrote, in a German newspaper-the Berliner Monatschrift-a short text. The title was â€Å"Was heisst Aufklairung? † It was for a long time, and it is still, considered a work of relatively small importance.But I can't help finding it very interesting and puzzling because it was the first time a philosopher proposed as a philosophical task to investigate not only the metaphysical system or the foundations of sci- Critical Inquiry Summer1982 785 entific knowledge but a historical event-a recent, even a contemporary event. When in 1784 Kant asked, Was heisst Aufklirung? , he meant, What's going on just now? What's happening to us? What is this world, this period, this precise moment in which we are living? Or in other words: What are we? as Aufklidrer,as part of the Enlightenment? Compare this with the Cartesian question: Who am I?I, as a unique but universal and unhistorical subject? I, for Descartes, is everyone, anywhere at any moment? But Kant asks something else: What are we? in a very precise moment of history. Kant's question appears as an analysis of both us and our present. I think that this aspect of philosophy took on more and more importance. Hegel, Nietzsche †¦ The other aspect of â€Å"universal philosophy† didn't disappear. But the task of philosophy as a critical analysis of our world is something which is more and more important. Maybe the most certain of all philosophical problems is the problem of the present time and of what we are in this very moment.Maybe the target nowadays is not to discover what we are but to refuse what we are. We have to imagine and to build up what we could be to get rid of this kind of political â€Å"double bind,† which is the simultaneous individualization and totalization of modern power structures. The conclusion would be that the political, ethical, social, philosophical problem of our days is not to try to liberate the individual from the state and from the state's institutions but to liberate us both from the state and from the type of individualization which is linked to the state.We have to promote new forms of subjectivity through the refusal of this kind of individuality which has been imposed on us for several centuries. How Is Power Exercised? For some people, asking questions about the â€Å"how† of power would limit them to describing its effects without ever relating those effects either to causes or to a basic nature. It would make this power a mysterious substance which they might hesitate to interrogate in itself, no doubt because they would prefer not to call it into question.By proceeding this way, which is never explicitly justified, they seem to suspect the presence of a kind of fatalism. But does not their very distrust indicate a presupposition that power is something which exists with three distinct qualities: its origin, its basic nature, and its manifestations? If, for the time being, I grant a certain privileged position to the question of â€Å"how,† it is not because I would wish to eliminate the ques- 786 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power tions of â€Å"what† and â€Å"why. Rather, it is that I wish to present these questions in a different way: better still, to know if it is legitimate to imagine a power which unites in itself a what, a why, and a how. To put it bluntly, I would say that to begin the analysis with a â€Å"how† is to suggest that power as such does not exist. At the very least it is to ask oneself what contents one has in mind when using this all-embracing and reifying term; it is to suspect that an extremely complex configuration of realities is allowed to escape when one treads endlessly in the double question: What is power? and Where does power come from? The little question, What happens? although flat and empirical, once scrutinized is seen to avoid accusing a metaphysics or an ontology of power of being fraudulent; rather, it attempts a critical investigation into the thematics of power. â€Å"How,† not in the sense oJ â€Å"How does it manifest itself? † but â€Å"By what means is it exercised? † and â€Å"Whathappens when individuals exert(as theysay) power over others? † As far as this power is concerned, it is first necessary to distinguish that which is exerted over things and gives the ability to modify, use, consume, or destroy them-a power which stems from aptitudes directly inherent in the body or relayed by external instruments.Let us say that here it is a question of â€Å"capacity. † On the other hand, what c haracterizes the power we are analyzing is that it brings into play relations between individuals (or between groups). For let us not deceive ourselves; if we speak of the structures or the mechanisms of power, it is only insofar as we suppose that certain persons exercise power over others. The term â€Å"power† designates relationships between partners (and by that I am not thinking of a zero-sum game but simply, and for the moment staying in the most general terms, of an ensemble of actions which induce others and follow from one another).It is necessary also to distinguish power relations from relationships of communication which transmit information by means of a language, a system of signs, or any other symbolic medium. No doubt communicating is always a certain way of acting upon another person or persons. But the production and circulation of elements of meaning can have as their objective or as their consequence certain results in the realm of power; the latter are n ot simply an aspect of the former. Whether or not they pass through systems of communication, power relations have a specific nature.Power relations, relationships of communication, and objective capacities should not therefore be confused. This is not to say that there is a question of three separate domains. Nor that there is on one hand the field of things, of perfected technique, work, and the transformation of the real; on the other that of signs, communication, reciprocity, and the production of meaning; and finally, that of the domination of the Critical Inquiry Summer1982 787 means of constraint, of inequality, and the action of men upon other men. It is a question of three types of relationships which in fact always overlap one another, support one another reciprocally, and use each other mutually as means to an end. The application of objective capacities in their most elementary forms implies relationships of communication (whether in the form of previously acquired infor mation or of shared work); it is tied also to power relations (whether they consist of obligatory tasks, of gestures imposed by tradition or apprenticeship, of subdivisions and the more or less obligatory distribution of labor).Relationships of communication imply finalized activities (even if only the correct putting into operation of elements of meaning) and, by virtue of modifying the field of information between partners, produce effects of power. They can scarcely be dissociated from activities brought to their final term, be they those which permit the exercise of this power (such as training techniques, processes of domination, the means by which obedience is obtained) or those, which in order to develop their potential, call upon relations of power (the division of labor and the hierarchy of tasks).Of course, the coordination between these three types of relationships is neither uniform nor constant. In a given society there is no general type of equilibrium between finalize d activities, systems of communication, and power relations. Rather, there are diverse forms, diverse places, diverse circumstances or occasions in which these interrelationships establish themselves according to a specific model.But there are also â€Å"blocks† in which the adjustment of abilities, the resources of communication, and power relations constitute regulated and concerted systems. Take, for example, an educational institution: the disposal of its space, the meticulous regulations which govern its internal life, the different activities which are organized there, the diverse persons who live there or meet one another, each with his own function, his well-defined character-all these things constitute a block of capacitycommunication-power.The activity which ensures apprenticeship and the acquisition of aptitudes or types of behavior is developed there by means of a whole ensemble of regulated communications (lessons, questions and answers, orders, exhortations, cod ed signs of obedience, differentiation marks of the â€Å"value† of each person and of the levels of knowledge) and by the means of a whole series of power processes (enclosure, surveillance, reward and punishment, the pyramidal hierarchy).These blocks, in which the putting into operation of technical capacities, the game of communications, and the relationships of power are adjusted to one another according to considered formulae, con1. When Jiirgen Habermas distinguishes between domination, communication, and finalized activity, I do not think that he sees in them three separate domains but rather three â€Å"transcendentals. † 788 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power titute what one might call, enlarging a little the sense of the word, â€Å"disciplines. † The empirical analysis of certain disciplines as they have been historically constituted presents for this very reason a certain interest. This is so because the disciplines show, first, according to artifi cially clear and decanted systems, the manner in which systems of objective finality and systems of communication and power can be welded together.They also display different models of articulation, sometimes giving preeminence to power relations and obedience (as in those disciplines of a monastic or penitential type), sometimes to finalize activities (as in the disciplines of workshops or hospitals), sometimes to relationships of communication (as in the disciplines of apprenticeship), sometimes also to a saturation of the three types of relationship (as perhaps in military discipline, where a plethora of signs indicates, to the point of redundancy, tightly knit power relations calculated with care to produce a certain number of technical effects).What is to be understood by the disciplining of societies in Europe since the eighteenth century is not, of course, that the individuals who are part of them become more and more obedient, nor that they set about assembling in barracks, schools, or prisons; rather, that an increasingly better invigilated process of adjustment has been sought after-more and more rational and economic-between productive activities, resources of communication, and the play of power relations.To approach the theme of power by an analysis of â€Å"how† is therefore to introduce several critical shifts in relation to the supposition of a fundamental power. It is to give oneself as the object of analysis power relations and not power itself-power relations which are distinct from objective abilities as well as from relations of communication. This is as much as saying that power relations can be grasped in the diversity of their logical sequence, their abilities, and their interrelationships.What constitutesthe specificnature of power? The exercise of power is not simply a relationship between partners, individual or collective; it is a way in which certain actions modify'others. Which is to say, of course, that something called Po wer, with or without a capital letter, which is assumed to exist universally in a concentrated or diffused form, does not exist. Power exists only when it is put into action, even if, of course, it is integrated into a disparate field of possibilities brought to bear upon permanent structures.This also means that power is not a function of consent. In itself it is not a renunciation of freedom, a transference of rights, the power of each and all delegated to a few (which does not prevent the possibility that consent may be a condition for the existence or the maintenance of power); the relationship of power can be the result of a prior or permanent consent, but it is not by nature the manifestation of a consensus. Critical Inquiry Summer 1982 89 Is this to say that one must seek the character proper to power relations in the violence which must have been its primitive form, its permanent secret, and its last resource, that which in the final analysis appears as its real nature when it is forced to throw aside its mask and to show itself as it really is? In effect, what defines a relationship of power is that it is a mode of action which does not act directly and immediately on others.Instead, it acts upon their actions: an action upon an action, on existing actions or on those which may arise in the present or the future. A relationship of violence acts upon a body or upon things; it forces, it bends, it breaks on the wheel, it destroys, or it closes the door on all possibilities. Its opposite pole can only be passivity, and if it comes up against any resistance, it has no other option but to try to minimize it.On the other hand, a power relationship can only be articulated on the basis of two elements which are each indispensable if it is really to be a power relationship: that â€Å"the other† (the one over whom power is exercised) be thoroughly recognized and maintained to the very end as a person who acts; and that, faced with a relationship of powe r, a whole field of responses, reactions, results, and possible inventions may open up.Obviously the bringing into play of power relations does not exclude the use of violence any more than it does the obtaining of consent; no doubt the exercise of power can never do without one or the other, often both at the same time. But even though consensus and violence are the instruments or the results, they do not constitute the principle or the basic nature of power. The exercise of power can produce as much acceptance as may be wished for: it can pile up the dead and shelter itself behind whatever threats it can imagine.In itself the exercise of power is not violence; nor is it a consent which, implicitly, is renewable. It is a total structure of actions brought to bear upon possible actions; it incites, it induces, it seduces, it makes easier or more difficult; in the extreme it constrains or forbids absolutely; it is nevertheless always a way of acting upon an acting subject or acting s ubjects by virtue of their acting or being capable of action. A set of actions upon other actions.Perhaps the equivocal nature of the term â€Å"conduct† is one of the best aids for coming to terms with the specificity of power relations. For to â€Å"conduct† is at the same time to â€Å"lead† others (according to mechanisms of coercion which are, to varying degrees, strict) and a way of behaving within a more or less open field of possibilities. * The exercise of power consists in guiding the possibility of conduct and putting in order the possible outcome.Basically power is less a confrontation between two adversaries or the linking of one to the other than a question of government. This word must be allowed the very broad meaning *Foucault is playing on the double meaning in French of the verb conduire, â€Å"to lead† or â€Å"to drive,† and se conduire, â€Å"to behave† or â€Å"to conduct oneself†; whence la conduite, â€Å"con duct† or â€Å"behavior. â€Å"-Translator's note. 790 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power which it had in the sixteenth century. Government† did not refer only to political structures or to the management of states; rather, it designated the way in which the conduct of individuals or of groups might be directed: the government of children, of souls, of communities, of families, of the sick. It did not only cover the legitimately constituted forms of political or economic subjection but also modes of action, more or less considered or calculated, which were destined to act upon the possibilities of action of other people. To govern, in this sense, is to structure the possible field of action of others.The relationship proper to power would not, therefore, be sought on the side of violence or of struggle, nor on that of voluntary linking (all of which can, at best, only be the instruments of power), but rather in the area of the singular mode of action, neither warlike nor juridical, which is government. When one defines the exercise of power as a mode of action upon the actions of others, when one characterizes these actions by the government of men by other men-in the broadest sense of the term-one includes an important element: freedom.Power is exercised only over free subjects, and only insofar as they are free. By this we mean individual or collective subjects who are faced with a field of possibilities in which several ways of behaving, several reactions and diverse comportments, may be realized. Where the determining factors saturate the whole, there is no relationship of power; slavery is not a power relationship when man is in chains. (In this case it is a question of a physical relationship of constraint. Consequently, there is no face-to-face confrontation of power and freedom, which are mutually exclusive (freedom disappears everywhere power is exercised), but a much more complicated interplay. In this game freedom may well appear as the condition for the exercise of power (at the same time its precondition, since freedom must exist for power to be exerted, and also its permanent support, since without the possibility of recalcitrance, power would be equivalent to a physical determination). The relationship between power and freedom's refusal to submit cannot, therefore, be separated.The crucial problem of power is not that of voluntary servitude (how could we seek to be slaves? ). At the very heart of the power relationship, and constantly provoking it, are the recalcitrance of the will and the intransigence of freedom. Rather than speaking of an essential freedom, it would be better to speak of an â€Å"agonism†*–of a relationship which is at the same time reciprocal incitation and struggle, less of a face-to-face confrontation which paralyzes both sides than a permanent provocation. *Foucault's neologism is based on the Greek &ycvro-ota meaning â€Å"a combat. The term would hence imply a physi cal contest in which the opponents develop a strategy of reaction and of†¢ mutual taunting, as in a wrestling match. -Translator's note. Critical Inquiry How is one to analyze the power relationship? Summer1982 791 One can analyze such relationships, or rather I should say that it is perfectly legitimate to do so, by focusing on carefully defined institutions. The latter constitute a privileged point of observation, diversified, concentrated, put in order, and carried through to the highest point of their efficacity.It is here that, as a first approximation, one might expect to see the appearance of the form and logic of their elementary mechanisms. However, the analysis of power relations as one finds them in certain circumscribed institutions presents a certain number of problems. First, the fact that an important part of the mechanisms put into operation by an institution are designed to ensure its own preservation brings with it the risk of deciphering functions which are e ssentially reproductive, especially in power relations between institutions.Second, in analyzing power relations from the standpoint of institutions, one lays oneself open to seeking the explanation and the origin of the former in the latter, that is to say, finally, to explain power to power. Finally, insofar as institutions act essentially by bringing into play two elements, explicit or tacit regulations and an apparatus, one risks giving to one or the other an exaggerated privilege in the relations of power and hence to see in the latter only modulations of the law and of coercion.This does not deny the importance of institutions on the establishment of power relations. Instead, I wish to suggest that one must analyze institutions from the standpoint of power relations, rather than vice versa, and that the fundamental point of anchorage of the relationships, even if they are embodied and crystallized in an institution, is to be found outside the institution. Let us come back to t he definition of the exercise of power as a way in which certain actions may structure the field of other possible actions.What, therefore, would be proper to a relationship of power is that it be a mode of action upon actions. That is to say, power relations are rooted deep in the social nexus, not reconstituted â€Å"above† society as a supplementary structure whose radical effacement one could perhaps dream of. In any case, to live in society is to live in such a way that action upon other actions is possible-and in fact ongoing. A society without power relations can only be an abstraction. Which, be it said in passing, makes all the more olitically necessary the analysis of power relations in a given society, their historical formation, the source of their strength or fragility, the conditions which are necessary to transform some or to abolish others. For to say that there cannot be a society without power relations is not to say either that those which are established a re necessary or, in any case, that power constitutes a fatality at the heart of societies, such that it cannot be undermined. Instead, I would say that the analysis, elaboration, and bringing into question of power relations 792 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power nd the â€Å"agonism† between power relations and the intransitivity of freedom is a permanent political task inherent in all social existence. The analysis of power relations demands that a certain number of points be established concretely: 1. The system of differentiationswhich permits one to act upon the actions of others: differentiations determined by the law or by traditions of status and privilege; economic differences in the appropriation of riches and goods, shifts in the processes of production, linguistic or cultural differences, differences in know-how and competence, and so forth.Every relationship of power puts into operation differentiations which are at the same time its conditions and its results. 2. The typesof objectivespursued by those who act upon the actions of others: the maintenance of privileges, the accumulation of profits, the bringing into operation of statutary authority, the exercise of a function or of a trade. 3.The means of bringing power relations into being: according to whether power is exercised by the threat of arms, by the effects of the word, by means of economic disparities, by more or less complex means of control, by systems of surveillance, with or without archives, according to rules which are or are not explicit, fixed or modifiable, with or without the technological means to put all these things into action. 4. Forms of institutionalization: these may mix traditional redispositions, legal structures, phenomena relating to custom or to fashion (such as one sees in the institution of the family); they can also take the form of an apparatus closed in upon itself, with its specific loci, its own regulations, its hierarchical structures which are car efully defined, a relative autonomy in its functioning (such as scholastic or military institutions); they can also form very complex systems endowed with multiple apparatuses, as in the case of the state, whose function is the taking of everything under its wing, the bringing into being of general surveillance, the principle of regulation, and, to a certain extent also, the distribution of all power relations in a given social ensemble. 5. The degrees of rationalization: the bringing into play of power relations as action in a field of possibilities may be more or less elaborate in relation to the effectiveness of the instruments and the certainty of the results (greater or lesser technological refinements employed in the exercise of power) or again in proportion to the possible cost (be it the economic cost of the means brought into operation or the cost in terms of reaction constituted by the resistance which is encountered).The exercise of power is not a naked fact, an instituti onal right, nor is it a structure which holds out or is smashed: it is elaborated, transformed, organized; it endows itself with processes which are more or less adjusted to the situation. One sees why the analysis of power relations within a society cannot be reduced to the study of a series of institutions, not even to the study of Critical Inquiry Summer1982 793 all those institutions which would merit the name â€Å"political. † Power relations are rooted in the system of social networks. This is not to say, however, that there is a primary and fundamental principle of power which dominates society down to the smallest detail; but, taking as point of departure the possibility of action upon the action of others (which is coextensive with every social relationship), multiple forms of individual isparity, of objectives, of the given application of power over ourselves or others, of, in varying degrees, partial or universal institutionalization, of more or less deliberate or ganization, one can define different forms of power. The forms and the specific situations of the government of men by one another in a given society are multiple; they are superimposed, they cross, impose their own limits, sometimes cancel one another out, sometimes reinforce one another. It is certain that in contemporary societies the state is not simply one of the forms or specific situations of the exercise of power–even if it is the most important-but that in a certain way all other forms of power relation must refer to it.But this is not because they are derived from it; it is rather because power relations have come more and more under state control (although this state control has not taken the same form in pedagogical, judicial, economic, or family systems). In referring here to the restricted sense of the word â€Å"government,† one could say that power relations have been progressively governmentalized, that is to say, elaborated, rationalized, and centrali zed in the form of, or under the auspices of, state institutions. Relations of power and relations of strategy. The word â€Å"strategy† is currently employed in three ways. First, to designate the means employed to attain a certain end; it is a question of rationality functioning to arrive at an objective.Second, to designate the manner in which a partner in a certain game acts with regard to what he thinks should be the action of the others and what he considers the others think to be his own; it is the way in which one seeks to have the advantage over others. Third, to designate the procedures used in a situation of confrontation to deprive the opponent of his means of combat and to reduce him to giving up the struggle; it is a question, therefore, of the means destined to obtain victory. These three meanings come together in situations of confrontation-war or games-where the objective is to act upon an adversary in such a manner as to render the struggle impossible for hi m. So strategy is defined by the choice of winning solutions.But it must be borne in mind that this is a very special type of situation and that there are others in which the distinctions between the different senses of the word â€Å"strategy† must be maintained. Referring to the first sense I have indicated, one may call power strategy the totality of the means put into operation to implement power effectively or to maintain it. One may also speak of a strategy proper to 794 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power power relations insofar as they constitute modes of action upon possible action, the action of others. One can therefore interpret the mechanisms brought into play in power relations in terms of strategies. But most important is obviously the relationship between power relations and confrontation strategies.For, if it is true that at the heart of power relations and as a permanent condition of their existence there is an insubordination and a certain essential obstin acy on the part of the principles of freedom, then there is no relationship of power without the means of escape or possible flight. Every power relationship implies, at least in potentia, a strategy of struggle, in which the two forces are not superimposed, do not lose their specific nature, or do not finally become confused. Each constitutes for the other a kind of permanent limit, a point of possible reversal. A relationship of confrontation reaches its term, its final moment (and the victory of one of the two adversaries), when stable mechanisms replace the free play of antagonistic reactions.Through such mechanisms one can direct, in a fairly constant manner and with reasonable certainty, the conduct of others. For a relationship of confrontation, from the moment it is not a struggle to the death, the fixing of a power relationship becomes a target-at one and the same time its fulfillment and its suspension. And in return, the strategy of struggle also constitutes a frontier fo r the relationship of power, the line at which, instead of manipulating and inducing actions in a calculated manner, one must be content with reacting to them after the event. It would not be possible for power relations to exist without points of insubordination which, by definition, are means of escape.Accordingly, every intensification, every extension of power relations to make the insubordinate submit can only result in the limits of power. The latter reaches its final term either in a type of action which reduces the other to total impotence (in which case victory over the adversary replaces the exercise of power) or by a confrontation with those whom one governs and their transformation into adversaries. Which is to say that every strategy of confrontation dreams of becoming a relationship of power, and every relationship of power leans toward the idea that, if it follows its own line of development and comes up against direct confrontation, it may become the winning strategy .In effect, between a relationship of power and a strategy of struggle there is a reciprocal appeal, a perpetual linking and a perpetual reversal. At every moment the relationship of power may become a confrontation between two adversaries. Equally, the relationship between adversaries in society may, at every moment, give place to the putting into operation of mechanisms of power. The consequence of this instability is the ability to decipher the same events and the same transformations either from inside the history of struggle or from the standpoint of the power relationships. The interpretations which result will not consist of the same elements of meaning or the same links or the same types of intelligibility, Critical Inquiry Summer 1982 795 lthough they refer to the same historical fabric, and each of the two analyses must have reference to the other. In fact, it is precisely the disparities between the two readings which make visible those fundamental phenomena of â€Å"dom ination† which are present in a large number of human societies.Domination is in fact a general structure of power whose ramifications and consequences can sometimes be found descending to the most recalcitrant fibers of society. But at the same time it is a strategic situation more or less taken for granted and consolidated by means of a long-term confrontation between adversaries. It can certainly happen that the fact of domination may only be the transcription of a mechanism of power esulting from confrontation and its consequences (a political structure stemming from invasion); it may also be that a relationship of struggle between two adversaries is the result of power relations with the conflicts and cleavages which ensue. But what makes the domination of a group, a caste, or a class, together with the resistance and revolts which that domination comes up against, a central phenomenon in the history of societies is that they manifest in a massive and universalizing form, at the level of the whole social body, the locking together of power relations with relations of strategy and the results proceeding from their interaction.